A Hawaiian Legend

Native people create legends to explain unusu henomena in their
environment. A end from the Hawaiian island uai explains how the
naupaka flower, lower tha s on beaches ; got its unusual shape. The
flower looks like alf a small . '-there are peta s on one side only. The legend
says that the marriage of two young lovers on the island was opposed by both
sets of parents. The parents found the couple together on a beach one day, and
to prevent them from being together, one of the families moved to the mountains,
separating the young couple forever. As a result, the naupaka flower separated
into two halves; one half moved to the mountains, and the other half stayed near
the beach. This story is a good example of a legend invented by native people
to interpret the world around them.

Greeting Cards

Have you noticed how many different kinds of greeting cards au can
buy these days? In the old days, the local drugstore had one rack display'
maybe five or six basic kinds of cards. You could walk into the store and
choose an appropriate card in five minutes or less. Nowadays, however, t e
display space for greeting cards is as big as a soccer field, and it may take
an hour or two to hunt down exactly the right card with exactly the right
message. There are at least 30 categories of birthday cards alone: birthday
cards for different ages, from different ages, for different relatives, from
different relatives, for different genders, from different genders, from a
couple, from the office, for dog owners, for cat owners, and so on. There are
cards for getting ajob, for retiring from a job, for acquiring a pet, for losing a
pet, for becoming engaged, for breaking up. There are also greeting cards to
send for no reason-"Thinking of you" or "Just because" cards. The newest
type of card is the "encouragement card." An encouragement card offers
comforting thoughts and helpful advice to someone who is sad or distressed
in these troubled times. In short, there is now a greeting card for every
possible life event and for a few nonevents as well.

Word Choice

Parallelism

Parallelism is the coordination of words, clauses and phrases in a sentence. Parallelism heightens the relation between connected elements by lining up noun with noun, phrase with phrase, and verb with verb.In Parallelism all linked words should match in form. e.g

1). Write injuries in dust, benefits in marble.
2). A living dog is better than a dead lion.

3). Any law that uplifts human personality is just. Any law that degrades human personality is unjust.
In the 3rd example, the construction of the second sentence is fully parallel with the construction of the second.The similarity in form helps to dramatize the difference between uplifts and degrades,and between just and unjust.
a). Situations in which we should make use of parallel constructions:
1). LIST

She was a personality before she became a person – she wassimple, complex, generous, selfish, unattractive, beautiful, lazy, anddriven.
There are 8 adjectives used in the above sentence since all are adjectives parallelism is maintained.
2). SERIES

A fool’s brain digests philosphy into folly, science into superstition,and art into pedantry.
There are 3 matching phrases consisting of a noun plus a prepositional phrase.
3). CONTRAST

They marched slowly but steadily.
Slowly and steadily show parallelism as both are adverbs.
4). SERIES PLUS CONTRAST

Rather than love, than money, than fame, give me truth.
Use of 4 nouns show parallelism.
5). CHOICE

We can repair the roof now, or we can replace the entire house in a year.
There are 2 independent clauses with the same subject and similar predicates.
6). STATEMENT OF EQUIVALENCE

A life without festivities is a long road without inns.
Here there are 2 nouns plus a matching prepositional phrases.
7). CLASSIFICATION/DEFINITION

Economy is the art of making the most of life.
There is a noun and a noun phrase.
8). STATEMENT OF EVALUATION

For most men the love of justice is only the fear of suffering injustice.
There are 2 noun phrases ,thus it shows parallelism.
9). COMPARISON

Walking in dust can be more rewarding than sitting on silk.
Here there are matching verbal nouns and prepositional phrases.
b). Using Correlatives with Parallelism
Correlatives are words or phrases used in pairs to join words, phrases, or clauses. Correlatives include:

Both…..and
Not only…..but also
Either…..or
Neither …..nor
Whether …..or
Examples:

1). Most tourists are willing to travel either by bus or by train.

2). They found mice not only in the cupboard but also under the sink.

3). Michelangelo was both a great sculptor and a great painter.
NOTE: Besides placing correlatives properly, be careful to use a parallel structure after each one:
Editing faulty parallelism
1). Incorrect – Janice’s way of reading menus is better than most people.
Correct – Janice’s way of reading menus is better than most people’s.
Or
Correct – Janice’s way of reading menus is better than that of most people.
Or
Correct – Janice’s way of reading menus is better than the way of most people.

2). Incorrect – The farmers will either find ways to cut their costs, or the banks will lower the interest
rate on loans.
Correct – Either the farmers will find ways to cut their costs, or the banks will lower the interest
rate on loans.

c). Other rules for forming parallel structure
1). When two adjectives modify the same noun, they should have similar forms.e.g

Incorrect - Brenda treated the patient swiftly and calm.
Correct - Brenda treated the patient swiftly and calmly.

2). When a series of clauses is listed, the verbs in each clause must have the same form.e.g

Incorrect - On sunny days many like to skate on the village pond or sledding on Mount
Knox.
Correct - On sunny days many like skating on the village pond or sledding on Mount
Knox.
OR
Correct - On sunny days many like to skate on the village pond or to sled on Mount
Knox.

3). Both halves of a sentence should have the same structure.e.g
Incorrect - To acknowledge Divine wisdom is taking the first step to nirvana.
Correct - Acknowledging Divine wisdom is taking the first step to nirvana.
Correct - To acknowledge Divine wisdom is to take the first step to nirvana.

Word Choice

The types of language listed below will help you to determine what types of

words and phrases you can use in a formal essay.

►Clichés: Phrases or sentences that have lost meaning through overuse.

Examples: Don’t count your chickens before they have hatched.

Let sleeping dogs lie.

These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech; however, in

writing, they appear to be substitutes for clear thought.

►Colloquial Language: Casual conversational language that has a wider

general acceptance than slang.

Examples: Let’s do lunch.

I’m going to get back at him.

Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English, but

it is unacceptable in formal speaking situations, and in written English.

►Euphemisms: Expressions that soften or obscure the meaning that you wish

to convey.

Examples: a guest of the government (in jail)

pre-owned (used)

passed away (died)

tactical omission (lie)

Euphemisms are good if they spare someone’s feelings, but they are bad

if they obscure meaning, or give a positive connotation to something

illegal, immoral, or otherwise unacceptable.

►Formal Language: Language of scholarly and technical writing that is

characterized by: precise language, complex sentences, and no contractions.

Formal Language is used in oral presentations and public addresses,

essays, reports, resumes, and business letters.

►Informal Language: The language of peer group discussion, newspaper

editorials, and certain magazines such as Time or Newsweek.

Examples: I writing in first person

can’t using contractions

Why not? using sentence fragments.

►Jargon: Technical words or phrases that are used in connection with a

particular trade or profession.

Examples: downsizing

bottom line

Jargon is good to use within the context in which it was developed, but it

becomes difficult to decipher when used outside of its particular context.

Be careful to define technical terms when you are addressing an audience

outside of your technical specialty.

►Non-standard Language: Incorrect language.

Examples: anyways

could of

prolly

youse guys

Never use non-standard language in your writing, unless you are quoting

someone who has used it. You should also avoid non-standard language

in conversation.

►Redundancy: Often called “wordiness”, this means using several words when

one or two will do.

Examples: In my opinion, I think …

completely new

dead body

Never use redundancies in your written work. They often irritate the

reader, and they sometimes make the intended meaning obscure.

►Slang: Informal language that is specific to a particular group and time period.

Examples groovy

stylin’

wicked

Use slang only in casual conversations with your peers.

Direct and Indirect Speech

English Grammar and Composition

Direct and Indirect Speech

When using indirect or reported speech, the form changes. Usually indirect speech is introduced by the verb said, as in I said, Bill said, or they said. Using the verb say in this tense indicates that something was said in the past. In these cases, the main verb in the reported sentence is put in the past. If the main verb is already in a past tense, then the tense changes to another past tense; it can almost be seen as moving even further into the past.

We often have to give information about what people say or think. In order to do this you can use direct or quoted speech, or indirect or reported speech.

Direct Speech / Quoted Speech

Saying exactly what someone has said is called direct speech (sometimes called quoted speech)
Here what a person says appears within quotation marks ("...") and should be word for word.
For example: She said, "Today's lesson is on presentations." or "Today's lesson is on presentations," she said.

Indirect Speech / Reported Speech

Indirect speech (sometimes called reported speech), doesn't use quotation marks to enclose what the person said and it doesn't have to be word for word.
When reporting speech the tense usually changes. This is because when we use reported speech, we are usually talking about a time in the past (because obviously the person who spoke originally spoke in the past). The verbs therefore usually have to be in the past too.
For example:

Direct speech	Indirect speech
"I'm going to the cinema", he said.	He said he was going to the cinema.

 

Tense change

As a rule when you report something someone has said you go back a tense: (the tense on the left changes to the tense on the right):

Direct speech		Indirect speech
Present simple  She said, "It's cold."	›	Past simple  She said it was cold.
Present continuous  She said, "I'm teaching English online."	›	Past continuous  She said she was teaching English online.
Present perfect simple  She said, "I've been on the web since 1999."	›	Past perfect simple  She said she had been on the web since 1999.
Present perfect continuous  She said, "I've been teaching English for seven years."	›	Past perfect continuous  She said she had been teaching English for seven years.
Past simple  She said, "I taught online yesterday."	›	Past perfect  She said she had taught online yesterday.
Past continuous  She said, "I was teaching earlier."	›	Past perfect continuous  She said she had been teaching earlier.
Past perfect  She said, "The lesson had already started when he arrived."	›	Past perfect  NO CHANGE - She said the lesson had already started when he arrived.
Past perfect continuous She said, "I'd already been teaching for five minutes."	›	Past perfect continuous  NO CHANGE - She said she'd already been teaching for five minutes.

Modal verb forms also sometimes change:

Direct speech		Indirect speech
will  She said, "I'll teach English online tomorrow."	›	would  She said she would teach English online tomorrow.
can  She said, "I can teach English online."	›	could  She said she could teach English online.
must  She said, "I must have a computer to teach English online."	›	had to  She said she had to have a computer to teach English online.
shall  She said, "What shall we learn today?"	›	should  She asked what we should learn today.
may  She said, "May I open a new browser?"	›	might  She asked if she might open a new browser.

!Note - There is no change to; could, would, should, might and ought to.

Direct speech	Indirect speech
"I might go to the cinema", he said.	He said he might go to the cinema.

You can use the present tense in reported speech if you want to say that something is still true i.e. my name has always been and will always be Lynne so:-

Direct speech	Indirect speech
"My name is Lynne", she said.	She said her name was Lynne. or She said her name is Lynne.

You can also use the present tense if you are talking about a future event.

Direct speech (exact quote)	Indirect speech (not exact)
"Next week's lesson is on reported speech ", she said.	She said next week's lesson is on reported speech.

 

Time change

If the reported sentence contains an expression of time, you must change it to fit in with the time of reporting.
For example we need to change words like here and yesterday if they have different meanings at the time and place of reporting.

Today	+ 24 hours - Indirect speech
"Today's lesson is on presentations."	She said yesterday's lesson was on presentations.

Expressions of time if reported on a different day
this (evening)	›	that (evening)
today	›	yesterday ...
these (days)	›	those (days)
now	›	then
(a week) ago	›	(a week) before
last weekend	›	the weekend before last / the previous weekend
here	›	there
next (week)	›	the following (week)
tomorrow	›	the next/following day

In addition if you report something that someone said in a different place to where you heard it you must change the place (here) to the place (there).
For example:-

At work	At home
"How long have you worked here?"	She asked me how long I'd worked there.

 

Pronoun change

In reported speech, the pronoun often changes.
For example:

Me	You
"I teach English online."	She said she teaches English online.

 

Reporting Verbs

Said, told and asked are the most common verbs used in indirect speech.
We use asked to report questions:-
For example: I asked Lynne what time the lesson started.
We use told with an object.
For example: Lynne told me she felt tired.
!Note - Here me is the object.
We usually use said without an object.
For example: Lynne said she was going to teach online.
If said is used with an object we must include to ;
For example: Lynne said to me that she'd never been to China.
!Note - We usually use told.
For example: Lynne told me that she'd never been to China.

There are many other verbs we can use apart from said, told and asked.
These include:-

accused, admitted, advised, alleged, agreed, apologised, begged, boasted, complained, denied, explained, implied, invited, offered, ordered, promised, replied, suggested and thought.

Using them properly can make what you say much more interesting and informative.
For example:
He asked me to come to the party:-

He invited me to the party.

He begged me to come to the party.

He ordered me to come to the party.

He advised me to come to the party.

He suggested I should come to the party.

 

Use of 'That' in reported speech

In reported speech, the word that is often used.
For example: He told me that he lived in Greenwich.
However, that is optional.
For example: He told me he lived in Greenwich.
!Note - That is never used in questions, instead we often use if.
For example: He asked me if I would come to the party.

                   

Review of progressive verbs.

Progressive verbs include the form of be + a present participle (verb+ing).

Examples	Uses
(a) When Mark gets home from work, Marcy is often studying. (b) I was driving to the restaurant when I saw the meteor shower. © Mario will be working the night shift when Trisha gets home.	To describe actions already in progress at the moment of focus.
(d) Alex usually goes out to eat on Fridays. This Friday, however, he is cooking at home. (e) The robins usually took up residence every spring in our old apple trees. One summer, though, they were building nests in some of the taller trees. (f) Most winters we spend our Christmas vacations at home. But this year we will be going to Vermont.	To describe actions at the moment of focus in contrast to habitual actions.
(g)She is constantly reminding me to water the plants. (h) As a young man, my brother was always getting into trouble. (i) Our math teacher will be checking our assignments each morning when class starts.	To express repeated actions.
(j) Andrea works in the principal’s office, but she is helping the new school nurse this week. (k) My father lived in Chile most of his life, except for two years when he was living in El Salvador. (l) We’ll live in a new home after the winter. Until then, we’ll be renting an apartment in the city.	To describe temporary situations in contrast to permanent states.
(m) The final paper is due soon. I’m finishing it as fast as I can. (n) Yesterday the students discussed the projects they were working on this semester. (o) When they finish their projects, they will be evaluating each other’s work for several days.	To describe periods of time in contrast to points of time.
(p) Sue is doing a volunteer work for homeless this summer. (q) When I last saw Ali , he was still planting his vegetable garden. ® I bet the baby will still be sleeping when we get home.	To express uncompleted actions.

Time frame shifts.

Review of Simple Tenses

Simple tenses include the simple present, simple past and simple future. They have the following uses:

Time Frame	Examples	Use
Present Past future	(a) Our in –groups help to define or values. (b) Immigrants to America in the mid nineteenth century included large numbers of Chinese. © Families will always be important to most of us.	To express general ideas, relationships and truths.
Present. Past Future	(d) Our family visits my grandparents after church every Sunday. (e) Almost every year we celebrated my great aunt’s birthday with a family picnic. (f) The club will collect clues once a month.	To describe habitual actions.
Present Past Future	(g) Kay thinks she has chosen the right profession. (h) People once believed that earth was flat. (i) You will love our new puppy.	To describe mental perceptions or emotions.
Present Past Future	(j) Mark has three brothers (k) We owned a SUV, but we traded it in for a hybrid car. (l) By next month, Hannah will have a new computer.	To express possessions or personal relationships.
Present Past Future	(m) The environmental agency reports that the new evidence has been gathered about global warming. (n) When the United States passed the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1881, 100,000 Chinese were living in the United States. (o) Mario will call you Thursday morning; I hope you will not have left for Omaha by then.	To establish the time frame and the moment of focus.

Time frame shifts.

Simple tenses include the simple present, simple past and simple future. They have the following uses:

Time Frame	Examples	Use
Present Past future	(a) Our in –groups help to define or values. (b) Immigrants to America in the mid nineteenth century included large numbers of Chinese. © Families will always be important to most of us.	To express general ideas, relationships and truths.
Present. Past Future	(d) Our family visits my grandparents after church every Sunday. (e) Almost every year we celebrated my great aunt’s birthday with a family picnic. (f) The club will collect clues once a month.	To describe habitual actions.
Present Past Future	(g) Kay thinks she has chosen the right profession. (h) People once believed that earth was flat. (i) You will love our new puppy.	To describe mental perceptions or emotions.
Present Past Future	(j) Mark has three brothers (k) We owned a SUV, but we traded it in for a hybrid car. (l) By next month, Hannah will have a new computer.	To express possessions or personal relationships.
Present Past Future	(m) The environmental agency reports that the new evidence has been gathered about global warming. (n) When the United States passed the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1881, 100,000 Chinese were living in the United States. (o) Mario will call you Thursday morning; I hope you will not have left for Omaha by then.	To establish the time frame and the moment of focus.